Nepal is undergoing through a painful process of transition. The Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) (2006), which is the foundation of the Interim Constitution (2007), dissolved Constituent Assembly and the government, has envisioned the fundamental restructuring of the state that include state’s vital institutions like judiciary, legislative and executive (including security and bureaucracy). In this context, intense discussions and debate are going on about the concepts, procedures, applications and limitations of the restructuring of the state institutions. Security is one of such which is sensitive in nature, kept close for long (to discuss security issues by non-security persons was viewed as encroachment and threat to the security itself), less availability of the expertise and low interests of people (because of self censorship or practiced as risk aversion strategy). The debate on the security sector was opened only after the signing of the CPA but again it was limited to small circle of people, mainly with ex-officials of security forces and bureaucrats and they too were concentrated in traditional security issues (focusing on military and state not the people). In Nepal, the security policy has basically been guided by ad hoc and non- tranparent policies and programmes. The National Security Council under the Ministry of Defense has never been institutionalized and supported to engage in organized study, planning, policy development or execution. These facts are compounded by limited awareness of security policy, strategy and security sector governance issues in the country including among the governing elites. Lack of knowledge and lucid analysis prevails, with little understanding of newer ideas in security studies.

Therefore, it can be argued that holistic debate of security is still largely missing or started in superficial level (at the stage of referral or what question, but not focused on why and how). Hence, there is a blatant need of widening discussions on national security issues and its various dimensions and agendas  that  include  the  non-traditional  security issues focusing to the question why and how. As the concept of human security has evolved in the early years of last decade, it has broadened

the definitions and agendas of security by incorporating political, social, economic, cultural and environmental issues. Furthermore, it has also shifted the concept of security from traditional state-centric approach to the people-centric approach. Therefore, it has become important to bring this issue at public discourse and sensitize at the political, policy and decision making levels. Our hope is that this book will contribute to some extent, fill the gap and facilitate the public debate on human security.

1.1       Expanding the security debate in Nepal

Though the concept of human security was formally introduced by Special Advisor to UNDP Dr Mahbub ul Haq with publication of Human Development Report in 1994 and it had extensively dealt this issue (UNDP 1994). Human security concept is getting popular together with the growing newer and unconventional security challenges in the world, because the conventional security arrangements, though getting priority at the political levels, are not able to safeguard the vital interests (food, shelter, water, etc.) of people, families and communities. This debate has gained momentum once UNDP published its Human Development Report in 1994. Later, the UN had created separate Human Security Commission and the UN has aggressively promoted the concept through international conferences, meetings and workshops. In 1999 an international network was also established among the ‘like-minded states’ and organised series of ministerial meetings to promote the concept of HS.

Though the concept was already introduced in 1994, it took almost 2 decades for Nepal to introduce the concept and engage in this debate. However, we are still not able to reorient our development policies and plannings towards the human security perspective. Since the concept was first introduced as an alternative perspective from the traditional state-centric security approach to the people-centric security approach, several efforts were made by leading researchers, scholars and academicians specifically developing and refining conceptual frameworks and methodological approaches for human security (Alkire 2003). In this context, the Human Security Commission has also played important role in promoting the HS debate in the world (CHS 2003).

The figure 1.1 shows the overlapping and or complementary components of the human security. Components of human security, as shown in the figure 1.1, are ecosystem and climate security, water and energy security, food and health security, environmental security, nuclear and biological

security, individual security, societal security and national security. In this context, human security is a holistic concept to be achieved through ensuring different security aspects presented in the figure 1.1. However, most majority of the policy makers, decision makers and security officials in Nepal (like in many other countries) are not yet able to internalize the importance of and interrelationship between different components of security (figure 1.1 and 1.2) mainly focus on the national security of achieving security from the use of forces (i.e. military).

Source: Designed by Bishnu Raj Upreti

1.2       Incorporation of non-traditional security issues in security policy/debate

Often security is linked with the conflict, violence, crime, burglary, unwanted encroachment or interference and so forth, in sum, more on the reactive side. The armed conflict database of Peace Research Institute OSLO, PRIO (2009) shows that the security discourses in the past 6 decades

was dominated by the conflict across the world. In the post World War-II, the security discourse was dominated mainly by the Cold War between the USA and the then USSR (that was mainly reflected on expanding influences in other countries through military invasion). Hence, other aspects of security as presented in the figure 1.2 were not getting attention until the disintegration of the USSR in 1991. In the 1950s the inter-state conflicts were very  intensive compared  to the  intra-state conflicts  and it  was continued until 1979. And after 1980s, it is in the decreasing trend (HSRP 2011). From the decade of the 1980s the unconventional security issues like environmental security was brought into the security debate and in the 1990s the concept of human security was introduced by broadening its definitions and incorporating wider agendas such as climate security, water security, food security and health security. Countries like Canada, Norway and Japan appeared to be the champion of human security in the earlier years.

They have promoted the concept of ‘freedom from fear’ and ‘freedom from want’. However, many other countries like Romania, Republic of Moldova, Ukrine, Australia, Finland, the UK, the Netherlands have also taken up human security issue and included it in their national security policies. For example, Romania included economic migration and displacement, protection of citizens, national identity and recognition, creation of civil society and empowerment,  family  ties,  employment and income generation,  public  health,  garbage  management,  control of aggressive/violent social behaviour, protection of  minority  rights and sustainable development as societal security issues in its security policy. Republic of Moldova has incorporated recognition of linguistic, ethnic, religious and cultural identities and rights, immigration, livelihood concerns of poor and minorities, as some of the important societal security issues in its national security policy. Ukraine has also included language, effectiveness of socio-economic infrastructures, management of population, gender equality as societal security issues in the national security policy. In the national security policy of Australia mass migration, environmental security threats, resource management and distribution, problems and insecurity created by climate change effects, risks related to population, food insecurity, water and energy insecurity and economic crisis are included. Similarly, Finland, Germany, the United Kingdom and

the Netherlands have included unconventional security issues (human security, societal security) in their national security policies.1

Scholars and researchers have started highlighting the need of expanding the security debate on unconventional security issues in Nepal since the end of last decade (Matthew and Upreti 2009). The examination of the inter-linkages between skewed/irrational exploitation of environmental resources like water, land, forest and civil wars/armed insurgency as a major source of insecurity in Nepal (Upreti 2004; Mathew and Upreti 2005), the environmental security and sustainable development (Upreti 2012a), the food and water security (Upreti 2012b), health security (Khatri 2012) are some of the examples of security debate to non-traditional security in Nepal. Interestingly, the newly appointed Chief of the Army Staff Gen. Gaurav Samsher Rana highlighted the need of incorporating non-traditional security threats into the national security policy while making his speech after assumption of his newly appointed position.2

Originally, the 7 components of HS were included as: economic security, food security, health security, environmental security, personal security, community security and political security. Because of the practical relevance, the HS has been broadened and getting wider attention. Even though the original components were limited to 7, over the time the components of HS needed to be expanded and cover many other areas and issues which are increasingly posing threats to the nation-state and the human being such as water security, climate security and so forth.

Report of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the parties to the Kyoto Protocol on its Seventh Session, held in Durban from 28 November to  11  December  2011, clearly highlighted that  climate security is a major security concern today for the world (Climate Change Secretariat 2011). Climate related disasters like flood, glacier melt, sea level rise, prolonging drought, increasing frequency of hurricane and storms etc are posing greater risks and threats to humanity. A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on

1 See a) Finish Security and Defense Policy 2009 (the Prime Minister’s Office Publication 13/2009), b) Securing an Open Society: Canada’s National Security Policy April 2004 (Canada Privy Council Office) c) Defense Policy Guidelines for the area of responsibility of the Federal Minister of Defense, Germany, 21 May 2003, d) National Security Strategy of the Netherlands, Ministry of Interior and Kingdom Relations, May 2007, e) The New Zealand Defense Force Strategic Plan 2007-2011, Ministry of Defense f) National Security Strategy of the United Kingdom: Security in the Interdependent World (The Cabinet Office, March 2008), for details about the inclusion of societal security in their national security policies and strategies.

2 General Rana, in his first Principal Staff Officers meeting immediately after the assumption as CoAS presented the strategy paper, where security challenges were highlighted in details and many of such challenges were related to non-traditional security issues.

Climate Change and the World Meteorological Organisation entitled ‘Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation - Summary for Policymakers’ (IPCC 2012) amply highlights the looming disaster risks and threats to human security. World Bank (WB 2010) in its World Development Report has highlighted the relationship between climate change and development.

Similarly, the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Report ‘The State of Food Insecurity in the World’ indicates the global challenges posed by food insecurity (FAO 2008). Several authors and scholars then started examining the relationship between environmental security and climate change (Floyd 2008; Matthew and Upreti 2009) and significance of the environmental security debate for climate change. In the recent decade security of migrant population is an another security concern, which has been depicted in the series of World Migration Reports (IOM 2011).

Increasing civil strife, armed conflicts and intra-state wars are becoming day to day reality in the present world; restoring peace is becoming one of the main HS concerns (HSRP 2011). Further, when state governments fail to judicially deal with the scarce resources and concerns of poor and marginalised people are ignored for long civil strife and conflict is unavoidable and it will be more in developing world (Kahl 2006; WB 2011). The World Development Report of the World Bank entitled ‘Conflict, Security and Development’ vividly highlighted the interrelationship between development, security and conflict.

1.3       Organization of the book chapters

Linking the thematic subjects into security and transforming the stand- alone concept into integrated human security concept is extremely difficult task for the authors. All contributors in one way or another encountered this situation in different degree. However, based on the peer review, comments, feedback and re-iterative process of rewriting made the content of individual chapter well grounded relating it into human security concept. Despite our constant efforts,  we  were  not able to find relevant experts to write water security chapter linking with human security. In the following section a brief overview of each chapter is presented:

 

Source: Designed by Bishnu Raj Upreti

The Chapter 1 has set the context by briefly introducing the conceptualisation and evolution of human security in general and the development of the debate in Nepal. Then this chapter presents some example of counties incorporating components of human security and societal security in their national security policies. It also highlights the need and relevance of human security in the changing context.

In Chapter 2 Rajan Bhattarai presents concepts and criticisms of HS and presents evolution of the concept at global, regional and national levels. In this chapter, readers can find different concepts, arguments, perspectives and critiques of human security by the well known writers and critics in the field of human security. This Chapter is the central framework of the book.

In Chapter 3 Yuba Raj Khatiwada, based on his a wide range of experiences in the areas of policy making, examines poverty and inequality from human security perspective and succinctly presents the link between human development and human security, politics of poverty, causes and

consequences. The chapter offers the link between the development and poverty and its relation with security.

Sony KC  and  Bishnu  Raj  Upreti in  Chapter  4  discuss the  relationship between social protection and human security and highlight the need of social security to protect weakest section of society, who are more vulnerable from the systematic shocks, chronic deficiency of basic needs. The authors argue that to achieve security in general and human security in particular social protection is one of the preconditions.

Yamuna Ghale and Nirmal Kumar Bishokarma in Chapter 5 present food insecurity as security challenge in Nepal. The authors succinctly inter- relate food security with human security and argue that food security is a fundamental right of people and achieving human security and national security is not possible without ensuring food security. The authors also present food security situation in Nepal in terms of access, affordability, availability and food security challenges.

Another important aspect of HS is health security, which is becoming a major security threat in the world. A report entitled ‘Fifty Facts: Global Health Situation and Trends 1995-2025’ of World Health Organisation presents worrying scenario if the states do not take serious action in time (WHO 1995). In Chapter 6, Damodar Adhikari analyses health security in Nepal from human security perspective. He brings overview of the health security situation in Nepal and demographic challenges (aging population, migration, child mortality, women trafficking, etc.), nutritional issues and new health challenges. His important argument is that health security is one of the fundmantal basis to achieve other security, as it is related to the people’s health.

Anita Ghimire in Chapter 7 discusses migration and security. She presents patterns of migration and nexus between migration and human security. The author highlights the complication of migration for foreign employment and associated insecurity to be addressed by the nation.

Batu Krishna Uprety in Chapter 8 offers climate change and its relation with human security in Nepal and efforts made in addressing challenges of climate change. In this chapter ongoing climate change debate is presented and efforts made in adaptation and mitigation is discussed. A quick overview of progress made in Nepal so far in addressing concerns of climate change is also presented.

Geja Sharma Wagle in Chapter 9 presents the political security debate and examines the relationship between human security and political security with special focuses on the decade long armed-conflict, peace process and post-conflict challenges in Nepal.

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