Nepalese Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 2020, vol. 19
ISSN 2091- 042X; e ISSN 2091- 0428
Changing gender dynamics through
high-value agriculture: a case of Ilam district, Nepal
S. Acharya1, B. P. Subedi1 and B. R. Upreti2
1Kathmandu
University,
2Nepal
Centre for Contemporary Research (NCCR), Nepal
ABSTRACT
Contemporary
literatures on gender and agriculture that demonstrate about the involvement of
more women in agriculture do not mean that it is about women empowerment. In
contrast to subsistence agriculture, high-value agriculture is considered as
means to provide women more employment and income opportunities, and contribute
in changing women’s condition and position in family and in community. In this
context, this paper compared changes in gender dynamics; and has analysed the
role of high-value agriculture in bringing those changes. This research applied
purposive sampling technique to select study area and the participants (91) for
the qualitative information. Two household surveys were conducted in Rong Rural
Municipality of Ilam district in 2015 and 2018. For the survey, out of 1,080
households (CBS, 2014) 513 households were selected in 2015; and 514 households
in 2018. Data were analyzed and interpreted taking the domains of Women Empowerment
in Agriculture Index for Value Chains (WEAI4VC). The findings of the study
revealed that high-value agriculture, mainly the large cardamom (Amomums
ubulatum Roxb.) had positive contribution in reducing the gender gap through
employment creation, narrowed down income gap, increased participation of women
in public sphere, increased role of women in decision making, improved
household relations, and increased mobility of women. The study has concluded
that high-value agriculture can be a means to empower women and contribute in
reducing gender inequality in the context of agricultural transition in Nepal.
However, there is visible influence of patriarchal mindset among men in sharing
the traditional roles of women pave the smooth path for gender equality.
Key words: Gender equality, High-value agriculture, Role
recognition, Women empowerment,
INTRODUCTION
As in many other low-income countries, Nepal’s men
and women farmers have specific roles, especially in agricultural practices
(Bhadra and Shah, 2007). Changing roles in society between men and women and
the increasing intensification of agriculture have, however, led to more women
taking part in decision-making, such as purchasing and applying fertilizers
(Upreti et al., 2018; KC et al., 2016). Feminization is the shift in gender
roles and sex roles in a society, group, or organization towards a focus upon
the feminine (Bradshaw, Chant & Linneker, 2018). It can
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Agricultural Sciences, 2020, vol. 19
ISSN 2091- 042X; e ISSN 2091- 0428
also mean the incorporation of women into a group
or a profession that was once dominated by men (Douglas, 1977). Contemporary
literatures on gender and agriculture demonstrate involvement of more women in agriculture
mainly in subsistence agriculture does not mean women are empowered (Malapit et
al., 2017; Tamang et al., 2014; Duflo, 2012; Gartuala et al., 2010). In
contrast to subsistence agriculture, high-value agriculture is considered as
means to provide women more employment and income opportunities; and contribute
in changing women’s condition and position in family and society (KC &
Upreti, 2017). Considering this reality, this paper aims to analyze changing
gender dynamics through high-value agriculture in Nepal.
Although Nepal has made substantial progress in
Human Development Index (HDI) in past 30 years - from 0.378 in 1991 to 0.578 in
2017, gender-based inequalities are deeply embedded in the social and political
space (UNDP, 2018). Patriarchal institutions - family, community, larger
society and the State play constrain women to take part and benefit from
development outcomes (Bhadra and Shah, 2007). Agriculture in Nepal is in
transition from subsistence to high-value agriculture (HVA) (KC, Upreti &
Subedi, 2016; Adhikari, 2013). Production area and volume of high-value crops
is in increasing trend over the years. Economic Survey 2017/18 by Ministry of
Finance (MoF, 2019) estimates that production of vegetables will increase by 10
percent and production of high-value spices will grow by 5.7 percent in 2019.
Similarly, production area of selected cash-crops increased by 24 percent, and
production volume increased by 81 percent in 10 years between 2007/08 to
2017/18 (MoALD, 2019).
In one hand, women’s participation on high-value
agriculture is growing and on the other hand, researcher contest on role of
women in agriculture like: women’s contribution in agriculture is poorly
recognized (World Bank, FAO and IFAD, 2009; Bhadra & Shah, 2007). More women
came into agriculture because of male out-migration and increasing demand of
agriculture produce in domestic and export market (Gartuala et al., 2010).
Despite women got better jobs and improved economic
condition, status of women is still disadvantaged (Razavi et al., 2012). Women
suffer from limited access to resources; tend to work in activities that have
low entry barriers, low capital requirements (Dǖrr, 2018; Hills & Vigneri,
2011) which limit their contribution in agriculture. Similarly, researchers
also claim that women possess less power and authority then men (Dongol, 2010);
participation of more women in agriculture does not mean that women are
empowered (Tamang et al., 2014). In such context it is necessary to compare the
gender roles in agriculture, but there lacks gender specific disaggregated data
to analyze gender role in agriculture in Nepal (Adhikari, 2013).
In this context, Feminization,
Agricultural Transition and Rural Employment (FATE) project (www.fate.unibe.ch)
has been doing research on how agricultural transition has influenced in gender
dynamics and rural employment in four land-locked countries - Nepal, Laos,
Rwanda and Bolivia. In Nepal, this research is conducted in Ilam district
taking the case of large cardamom Within the broad scope of FATE, this paper
brings the changes in gender relation in the farms of Eastern hills of Nepal
based on comparison of household survey results of 2015 and 2018 and the
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Nepalese Journal of
Agricultural Sciences, 2020, vol. 19
ISSN 2091- 042X; e ISSN 2091- 0428
factors that contributed in bringing the change.
The analysis is based broadly on domains of Women Empowerment in Agriculture
Index for Value Chains (WEAI4VC).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This research applied purposive sampling technique
to select study area, or clusters and used census method for household survey
of the selected clusters and also used purposive sampling technique to select
the study participants for the qualitative information. The Rong Rural
Municipality – 6 of Ilam district, Province 1 of Nepal was selected (Figure 1).
The rational for selection for this site was that more than 95 percent farming
households in the study site cultivate high-value crops like large cardamom and
tea, potato, orange, honey, broom, beetle nut, and seasonal vegetables mostly
for export.
Rong Rural Municipality
Figure 1: Map of Ilam district showing Rong Rural
Municipality
Large cardamom is extensively cultivated in comparison
to other crops in later years; and it is a sub-sector for rural employment and
household income.
For the purpose of household survey, 513 households
were selected out of 1,080 households (CBS, 2014) in 2015 and 514 households in
2018. Study area was clustered as Salakpur, Rambheng and Jirmale following
stratified sampling technique; and then clustered as cardamom growers and
non-growers (Fowler, 2009). Since cardamom was the main interest of research,
survey aimed to include as many cardamom producers as the respondents. After
selecting the
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Nepalese Journal of
Agricultural Sciences, 2020, vol. 19
ISSN 2091- 042X; e ISSN 2091- 0428
clusters, the census technique was adopted to
collect the information from the households (see sampling strategy in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Detail of sampling strategy for household
survey
While conducting second survey in 2018, optimum
attempt was made to select the same households. Two sets of questionnaires were
developed. For Part I, primary respondents could be male or female member of
the household whereas for Part II, male and female both members (spouses as far
as possible) from the same households were selected and filled the survey form
separately. Table 1 shows the sample size of respondent households and gender
disaggregation for the year 2015 and 2018.
Table 1: Population and sample
size for survey 2015 and 2018 (Comparative)
|
Population |
Households |
Household
Member by Gender |
|
Total |
||||||
|
and
Sample |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2015 |
2018 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Male |
|
Female |
|
|
|
||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2015 |
|
2018 |
2015 |
2018 |
2015 |
|
2018 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Population |
1069 |
1080 |
2376 |
|
2401 |
2342 |
2367 |
4718 |
|
4768 |
|
|
|
|
(50.4) |
|
(50.2) |
(49.6) |
(49.8) |
(100.0) |
|
(100.0) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Sample |
513 |
514 |
1024 |
|
1204 |
1023 |
1163 |
2068 |
|
2347 |
|
|
|
|
(50.5) |
|
(51.2) |
(49.5) |
(48.8) |
(100.0) |
|
(100.0) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Source: CBS, 2012; Field Survey, 2015 & 2018
Note:
Figures inside the parenthesis indicate percentage
The comparative results of household survey were interpreted
with qualitative data collected at different time frame between 2015 and 2018.
For the purpose of qualitative data collection, stratified purposive sampling
technique was applied. The strata for qualitative data collection were based on
size of production and ethnic background of the research participants. In-depth
interview
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Agricultural Sciences, 2020, vol. 19
ISSN 2091- 042X; e ISSN 2091- 0428
with the participants, prolonged
field observation and focused group discussions tools were applied to collect
qualitative information.
The collected data were analyzed using Women
Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) (Alkire, et al., 2013) with assumption
that women empowerment directly corresponds to improved gender relation. WEAI
analyses women empowerment in 5 domains: production, resources, income,
leadership and time. This paper further attempted to analyse change in women
empowerment using WEAI for Value Chains (WEAI4VC) framework developed by
International Food and Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and piloted in
Bangladesh (Ahmed et al., 2018). WEAI4VC is an extension of WEAI which adds
livelihoods, intra-household relations and role related mobility as additional
units. This paper added intra-household relations and role related mobility
from WEAI4VC framework.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSSION
Changes in agricultural
production
Over the past fifty years there is entire shift in
agricultural production from subsistence cereal based crop livestock integrated
to high-value cash crops (KC, 2019). Farmers in the study area produce and sell
mainly large cardamom, ginger, orange, beetle nut, broom grass and tea. More
recently, they are planting kiwi, coffee, Rudrakshya (Eleocarpus species) with an intension to make higher incomes. The
comparison of survey results between 2015 and 2018 show slight differences in
number of households in terms of crops volume produced. In 2015, almost 79
percent households had cultivated broom grass, followed by cardamom (63%
households) and orange (21% households). However, in 2018, there was sharp
decline in households producing broom grass and orange. Broom grass producing
households dropped to 10 percent and orange producing households to 5.5
percent. In contrast to this, cardamom producing households increased from 63
percent to 70 percent.
As compared to 2015, more households had cultivated
cardamom and thus the volume of production also increased in 2018. In 2015, 81
percent households had produced cardamom below 200 kg per annum while in 2018,
only 70 percent households had produced below 200 kg. On the other hand,
households producing cardamom between 200 kg to 500 kg increased from 14
percent in 2015 to 25 percent in 2018. However, there was almost no change in
number of households producing 500 kg cardamom in both surveys. Table (2)
provides detail information on this. Qualitative data revealed that number of
orange farming households reduced because of mass drying of orange orchards in
Salakpur area of study site. Households were attracted from good price of
cardamom and sharply switched from the broom to cardamom. Broom can thrive on
dry area, but cardamom needs regular irrigation in dry months. So, farmers were
investing huge amount of money in managing irrigation.
Access to productive resources
Access to productive resources for the purpose of
comparison between the genders considers ownership over the house, ownership on
land and ownership over assets related to agricultural production.
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Nepalese
Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 2020, vol. 19
ISSN 2091- 042X; e ISSN 2091-
0428
Table 2: Major agricultural crops and its
production (N = 513 for 2015 and N = 514 for 2018)
|
S.No. |
Major
crops |
|
2015 |
|
|
|
|
2018 |
|
||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
|
# HHs |
Product quantity (Kg) |
# HHs |
Production quantity (Kg) |
||||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<200 |
|
200-500 |
>500 |
|
<200 |
|
200-500 |
>500 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1 |
Cardamom |
322 |
260 |
|
44 |
19 |
356 |
248 |
|
90 |
18 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2 |
Beetle nut |
78 |
21 |
|
25 |
32 |
52 |
9 |
|
15 |
28 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
3 |
Broom |
404 |
105 |
|
167 |
132 |
50 |
19 |
|
17 |
18 |
|
|
grass |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
4 |
Orange |
104 |
12 |
|
32 |
60 |
18 |
2 |
|
1 |
15 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
5 |
Tea |
5 |
2 |
|
1 |
2 |
9 |
4 |
|
2 |
3 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
6 |
Rice |
1 |
1 |
|
|
|
3 |
1 |
|
- |
2 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
7 |
Ginger |
15 |
4 |
|
7 |
4 |
2 |
1 |
|
1 |
- |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
8 |
Others |
55 |
- |
|
- |
- |
24 |
5 |
|
- |
3 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Total |
|
N=513 |
|
|
|
|
N=514 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Source: Field Survey, 2015, 2018
Regarding house ownership, survey
findings of 2018 revealed that at least 44 percent men owned houses they lived
in; and at maximum, 9 percent women owned the houses. Moreover, about one third
households had joint ownership. In comparison to the survey data of 2015, the
findings have been improved in 2018. Similarly, in the case of ownership over
agricultural assets, about 3/5th of the households had joint ownership between the
spouses whereas solo ownership for male and female was almost equal (Table 3).
Table 3:
Situation on access over the resources (n= 351 Male; n=427 Female)
|
Assets/
Ownership |
|
|
Household |
|
|
Agri-assets |
|
||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2015 |
|
2018 |
2015 |
2018 |
||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
|
|
|
(%) |
(%) |
|
(%) |
(%) |
(%) |
(%) |
(%) |
(%) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Male headed household |
59 |
|
37 |
54 |
44 |
21 |
23 |
23 |
19 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Female headed household |
2 |
|
2 |
2 |
9 |
1 |
11 |
1.5 |
10 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Joint ownership |
27 |
|
25 |
30 |
32 |
55 |
56 |
63 |
62 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Other members |
12 |
|
34 |
14 |
15 |
23 |
20 |
12.5 |
13.5 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Total |
100 |
|
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Source: Field Survey, 2015 & 2018
Findings from the in-depth
interviews and discussion revealed that ownership over the parental land was
mostly in the name of male. But, the land they purchased either in the village,
or in the plains i.e. Jhapa, Sunsari and other parts of the country, was mostly
in the names of male. Among the Lepcha community in Jirmale area, the formal
ownership on parental property belongs to elder brother. But in practice, all
brothers had divided the land almost equally; and were farming separately.
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ISSN 2091- 042X; e ISSN 2091- 0428
Employment
and income generation
The survey data on employment created from one
commodity – large cardamom revealed that about 3/5th and
women were self-employed in 2015. Self-employment here considers working in own
farm as well as work in neighbours farm on labor exchange basis. Regarding
choice of gender in wage employment, about 1/5th
households preferred men, 1/10th HHs preferred women, 1/3rd
households employ equally, and about the similar proportion households employ
based on availability. About 1/4th farmers go for wage-employment at other’s farm. In
2015, average wage working days for men and women were 37 and 54 days, respectively.
Analysis of wage rate showed that about 3/5th employees received NRs between
200-400 per day, and about 1/3rd of them received NRs above 400 per day, and rest received below NPR 200
per day. As compared to non-farm sector wage rate in the study area, the rates
wage labours received was considerably low. In non-farm sector, 1/3rd of them got wages between NRs
200-400 and 3/5th got above NRs 400 per day. Rest of the workers received below NRs 200
per day. Thus, in 2015, average earning for men and women was NRs 385 and 340
per day, respectively. The average earning for men and women as per the survey
2018 was NRs 395and 360 per day, respectively.
Comparison
of income between the partners
The comparison of income between spouses in 2015
revealed that about 1/2of men believed they earn more income than their spouses
and around 1/3rd men believed they earn almost equal. However, in 2018, about
1/4th men believed they earn more than their spouses and
more than 1/2 men reported that both spouses earn almost equal. This suggests
recognition of women’s work and financial contribution to the family by male
members. Table 3 provides detail information on comparison of income.
Table 4: Comparison of income
between partners (n= Male: 439, Female: 475 in 2015; and
n= Male: 351; Female: 427 in
2018)
|
Comparison |
|
2015 |
|
2018 |
||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Male |
|
Female |
Male |
|
Female |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Earn more money than him/her |
46.7% |
|
8.4% |
25.4% |
|
6.3% |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Earn less money than him/her |
6.8% |
|
50.1% |
4.8% |
|
19.4% |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Earn about the same money as him/her |
35.8% |
|
31.4% |
53.8% |
|
49.5% |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Others |
10.7% |
|
10.1% |
16% |
|
24.8% |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Total |
100% |
|
100% |
100% |
|
100% |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Source: Field Survey, 2015 & 2018
Participation
in groups
Participation of women in groups indicates women
stepping towards public sphere crossing the family territory. The comparison of
survey results for 2015 and 2018 revealed visible increase in women’s
participation in groups such as women agriculture cooperative, mother’s group,
community forestry groups, drinking water groups and so on. In 2015, ½ of the
women were involved in any of the groups mentioned earlier. This figure
increased to 3/5th in 2018. As compared to women, participation of
men in groups was significantly low. In 2015, less than 1/5th
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men said they were members in local groups. This
figure arouses to 1/4th of them in 2018 (Table 5).
Table 5: Participation in groups
(N = 439 M, N =475 F-2015; N= 351F; N=427F-2018)
|
Participation |
|
Male |
|
Female |
||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2015 |
|
2018 |
2015 |
|
2018 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Cooperative |
14% |
|
15.0 % |
26.0% |
|
35.0% |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Women’s saving group |
- |
|
3.0% |
18.0 % |
|
19.0% |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Others |
3% |
|
7.0% |
9. 0% |
|
8.0% |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Do not participate in any group |
83% |
|
75.0% |
47.0% |
|
38.0% |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Total |
100% |
|
100% |
100% |
|
100% |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Source:
Field Survey, 2015 & 2018
The qualitative data shows that mother’s group,
women agricultural cooperative, micro-credit organization provide membership
only to the females. The objective of such groups is to create awareness and
saving habit of women; solve immediate problems of women including violence.
There was role of government institutions and Non-government Organizations in
forming and strengthening the women groups.
Changes in household assets
With the increased family income, households have
added different household assets over time. This is seen visible in field
survey 2015 and 2018. In 2015 survey, households were also asked about their
status in 2010. Thus, the Table 6 compares change in household assets. Starting
with the households having motorbike, only 1/10th of
households had motorbikes in 2010. This number increased to about ½ of the
households in 2015 and close to 3/4th household in 2018. The number of tractor and
pickup van owned households increased from 3 in 2010 to 14 in 2018. In 2015,
only one third households used mobile phones but in 2018, above 4/5th
households had at least one mobile set. Households having TV set also increased
from 169 to 215 in during the period of 3 years, i.e. 2015 to 2018 (Table 6).
Table 6: Changes in household
asset types in 2010, 2015 and 2018
(N = 513 for 2015 and N = 514 for
2018)
|
Asset
types |
|
Year |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2010 |
2015 |
2018 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Motorcycle |
16 |
48 |
71 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Tractor/Pick up |
3 |
8 |
14 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Mobile |
196 |
391 |
542 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
TV set |
73 |
169 |
215 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Radio |
219 |
262 |
245 |
|
|
|
|
|
Source:
Field survey, 2015 & 2018
From in-depth interviews, it was revealed that
around half of the households do not have access to electricity. Many low
earning households do not have basic assets such as mobile, radio and
television set. Households who do not have radio or television sets, go to
neighbours’ house to enjoy such facilities. Apart from the assets given in the
table, households have added additional
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rooms, furniture, kitchen utensils and more from
the money earned from cardamom and other income.
Participation
in decision making
Involvement and influence of women in family
decision making was increased in 2018 as compared to 2015. Respondents were
asked who holds family earning. Whether respondent keeps personal money and who
takes decision on children’s education? In 2015, more than 4/5th male and
female respondents reported that they keep household earning together. Either
spouse can access this money when required for family expenditure. Less than 15
percent spouses replied they keep money themselves. On an average, two-third of
both spouses keeps personal money. In decisions related to children’s
education, men’s influence was higher by 13 percent.
In 2018, as compared to 2015 data, there is slight
decrease in money that spouse keep together. Moreover, there is increase in
holding personal money between both spouses. Still, about 1/5th women
and less than 1/10th men do not hold personal money. There is
considerable increase in taking influencing decisions on education of children
for both spouses. Sixty six percent men and 45 percent women play influencing
role in education which was 39 percent for men and 25 percent for women in
2015.
Table 7: Participation in
decision making (n= 439 M; 475 F in 2015; n= 351 M, 427 F in 2018)
|
|
|
Decision
area |
|
2015 |
|
2018 |
||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Male (%) |
|
Female (%) |
Male (%) |
|
Female (%) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Holding earning |
We put everything together |
83.1 |
|
80.8 |
75.5 |
|
77.5 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
I keep money I earn |
10.7 |
|
14.3 |
14.8 |
|
10.6 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Keep some / give spouse some |
6.1 |
|
4.8 |
- |
|
- |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Personal money |
Yes |
71.1 |
|
64.8 |
91.7 |
|
77.7 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
No |
28.9 |
|
35.2 |
8.3 |
|
22.3 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Education |
of |
Limited influence |
4.3 |
|
6.9 |
4.3 |
|
9.1 |
|
children |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Somehow influence |
36.4 |
|
49.9 |
14.8 |
|
26.7 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Major influence |
38.7 |
|
25.4 |
66.9 |
|
45.6 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Source: Field survey, 2015 & 2018.
Intra-household
relations
Intra-household relation between spouses and
in-laws was improved over the years. Both male and female participants involved
in in-depth interviews shared the fact that they help and respect each-other’s
work. Female member’s voice has been heard in the family. As cardamom and other
crops demand more labour than subsistence crops, both the spouses engage in
farms most of the time. The increasing stake of women in employment and income
might have an influence on men to acknowledge women’s role and co-operate in
household works. This has created a kind of interdependence among family
members. In addition, with increased awareness, income and exposure, women have
developed their capacity and confidence i.e. reduced dependence over men.
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The domestic violence against women has decreased
over the years. One cardamom farmer from Rambheng said women in her village do
not tolerate domestic violence. They respond case through women’s group based
on the nature of violence. Women are aware regarding domestic violence and if
something wrong happened, women’s group facilitates to resolve the issue. If
the case is severe, they support to the victim to take the case to the police.
Respondents also viewed that trend of divorce is increasing over the years.
Role related mobility
Role related to the mobility is important dimension
of women empowerment in agriculture. It was learned that they do not have
constraint in mobility from family reasons or due to social norms. While saying
this, they also said, male members prefer to work outside, and women prefer to
work inside. Moreover, women’s mobility is constrained by skills to drive motorbikes
(for household who have motorbikes) and less access to public transportation.
Many women in the course of FGDs told that “they
do not like their spouses doing cooking, taking care of children and other household works”.
It was also observed that when women were out of
house, men were taking the role of women. One female nursery entrepreneur in
Salakpur said it would not be possible for her to participate in cardamom
nursery training decade ago in district headquarter if her husband had not taken
care of their small child, livestock and the farm. Field observation further
shows that women sometime request to their husbands to participate in the
events on behalf of them. For example, manager of local cooperative insisted
her husband to participate in entrepreneurship training organized the rural
municipality. This was not because of mobility constraint and family reasons,
but due to venue of the training which was feasible to participate.
State of well-being
The respondents were asked about their satisfaction
over life, separately for male and female. The data taken in 2015 shows about
3/5th male and females were satisfied with the life they
were living. In three years’ time in 2018, satisfaction level for male and
female increased by 6% and percentage of not satisfied males and females
decreased by 7 percent and 9 percent, respectively. This shows the positive
trend for both male and female in achieving well-being in their life (Table 8).
Table 8: Well-being status of the
respondents
(n= 439 M; 475 F in 2015; n= 351
M, 427 F in 2018)
|
Well-being
status |
2015 |
|
|
2018 |
||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Male (%) |
|
Female
(%) |
Male (%) |
|
Female (%) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Not very satisfied |
34 |
|
38 |
27 |
|
29 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Satisfied |
62 |
|
59 |
66 |
|
66 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Very satisfied |
4 |
|
3 |
7 |
|
5 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Source:
Field Survey, 2015 & 2018
DISCUSSION
Key
findings of the panel survey suggest women are behind men in almost all
variables of comparison. In spite of this, trend shows positive facts that
share of women is increasing over the
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years. As compared to men in two consecutive
surveys, women’s proportion has increased in terms of getting employment,
earning money, increased assets, increased role in decision making,
participation in groups and satisfaction over life.
The contemporary researches on agriculture and
out-migration claim feminization in agriculture (Tamang et al., 2014), which is
only partly true in the context of high-value agriculture. In general context
of labour market in Nepal, female employment-to-population rate is about 23
percent, i.e. around 25 percent lower than of male employment-to-population
rate (Nepal Labour Force Survey 2017-18, CBS, 2019). In contrary to this, 56 percent
men and 59 percent women are self-employed in high-value agriculture.
Similarly, household earning from cardamom and other high-value crops ranged
from NRs 70,000 to 90,000 per household per annum. In the context of more than
4 million youths are in abroad labour market (MoF, 2019), high-value
agriculture in the eastern hills of Nepal has provided ample employment
opportunities. Despite the findings of Farnworth et al. (2019) and Adhikari
& Hobley (2015) in Southern and Western region of Nepal that increased
women’s mobility, participation in groups, goes for marketing is not as a
consequence of women empowerment, but as a result of male outmigration. Village
Profile of Rong Rural Municipality (2019) shows that below 5 percent of the
total population were migrated from the rural municipality for job. The Labour
and Employment Survey report of Nepal government also confirms this finding by
stating that abroad migration is comparatively low in Eastern hill districts
(MoLE, 2016).
Engagement of women in high-value crops co-relates
with the paid employment and income generation opportunity for women. These
have direct contribution in reducing the gender gap in household earning and
mitigate the traditional belief- men as bread winners. Increased incomes correspond
to added personal and household assets and build self-confidence. This suggests
that high-value agriculture corresponds to empowerment of women in rural
context. This claim is also supported by researches carried-out in Africa and
Asian countries. In Uganda, women involved in cash crops have better ability in
making family decisions (Bomuhangi, et al., 2011), and living better and get
social recognition (Alam, 2012; Kabeer, 2012). Family recognition increases
when contribution of women is visible in family food, health and educational
investments (Duflo, 2012).
The findings of this research with regard to
women’s limited access to house, land and other productive assets have its
roots to the patriarchal society of Nepal. In patriarchal society, ownership of
parental property is first transferred to male members (UNDP, 2015; Bhadra and
Shah, 2007; WB, FAO & IFAD, 2009). The increased land ownership of women in
the case when they are buying new land might be because of Nepal government
policy of granting 30% tax relief if registration is passed for women. Oxfam
(2019) questions that despite increasing trend of women’s access in valuable
physical assets; women hardly have full control over this. In contrast to this,
who owns land is less important in the context of rural Uganda. Women’s access
to assets in the study site does not differ significantly as outlined by FAO
(2019).
Increased women membership in cooperatives and
local groups indicates increased capacity in saving and credit. This finding is
in line with the finding of Deere & Doss (2006), as the authors stated that
membership in cooperatives is a good habit of women and this helps women not to
be
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limited at the household and household chores which
can be considered as empowerment of women (Meizan-Dick et al., 2019). Women
cooperative members can enjoy social and economic benefits (Upreti et al.,
2018) which in the view of Farnworth et al. (2019) promote collective and
individual agency of women (Farnworth et al., 2019). Despite saying this,
participation in cooperatives can be questioned on the ground accessibility to
all members and family conditions of mobility.
The high-value agriculture provides space for
spouses to work together and bear the joint responsibility of earning bread for
family jointly. This builds cooperation and trust between the spouses. This
also provides environment for women for mobility, group membership, and control
over assets and to earn more income (KIT, Agri-Pro Focus & IIRR, 2012;
Meizen-Dick et al., 2019). The decisions related to investment on child
education, can be important determinant for the child’s well-being (Malapit et
al., 2018).But in the case of women participation in other form of agriculture,
women’s role may not be visible and recognized (Adhikari, 2013; Bhadra &
Shah, 2007), even when both the spouses have equal contribution (Urdinola &
Wodon, 2010; Hill & Vigneri, 2011).
Though there was not visible constraint in mobility
of women in the study site, the traditional belief on gender roles has
constrained mobility of women in many ways. Though family members are being
supportive than they were before, women’s involvement in household work and
care still left them behind. Me-Nsope & Larkins (2016) come up with the
similar findings in the case of pigeon-pea value chain in Malawi. Women’s
workloads and domestic responsibilities are common factors that limit mobility
and ability of women (Meinzen-Dick et al., 2019).
CONCLUSION
From the comparison of data for two subsequent
household surveys and analysis of qualitative information, it can be concluded
that farmers have growing interest in high-value agriculture with the increased
role and recognition of women on it. Unlike subsistence agriculture, high-value
agriculture can contribute positively in improving gender relation and the
family well-being. More specifically, the role of high-value agriculture is not
only limited in retention of males from out-migration, but also have direct
contribution in women empowerment. Through high-value agriculture, women can
get better employment and income and could play significant role in household
earning. Women have increased access to productive assets, contribution in
decision making and participation in public sphere has created space for their
role and recognition.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research was caried out under the research
project "Feminization, Agricultural Transition, and rural Employment:
Social and political conditions of asset building in the context of export-led
agriculture compared to alternative income-generating opportunities (FATE
project)" and therefore we acknowledge FATE and its funder Swiss National
Science Foundation/SDC.
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